αž—αžΆαžŸαžΆαžαŸ’αž˜αŸ‚αžš English
  • αž’αŸ†αž–αžΈαž™αžΎαž„
    • αž“αžΆαž™αž€αžŠαŸ’αž‹αžΆαž“αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ

    • αž“αžΆαž™αž€αžŠαŸ’αž‹αžΆαž“αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž§αžŸαŸ’αžŸαžΆαž αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜

    • αž“αžΆαž™αž€αžŠαŸ’αž‹αžΆαž“αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž’αŸ’αž“αž€αž“αž·αž–αž“αŸ’αž’ αž“αž·αž„β€‹ αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αŸ’αžšαž αžΆαž€αŸ‹αž”αŸ’αžšαž αŸ‚αž›

    • αžŸαž αž”αŸ’αžšαžαž·αž”αžαŸ’αžαž·αž€αžΆαžšαžŽαŸ αž“αž·αž„ αž‡αŸ†αž“αž½αž™αž”αž…αŸ’αž…αŸαž€αž‘αŸαžŸ

  • αž€αžΆαžšαž…αž»αŸ‡αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‡αžΈαž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€αž’αž“αŸ’αžαžšαž‡αžΆαžαž·
    • αž€αžΆαžšαž…αž»αŸ‡αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‡αžΈαž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€αž‡αžΆαž›αž€αŸ’αžαžŽαŸˆαž’αž“αŸ’αžαžšαž‡αžΆαžαž·
  • αžŸαŸαž…αž€αŸ’αžαžΈαž•αŸ’αžαžΎαž˜αž–αžΈαž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ
    • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ?

      αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ (IP) αžŸαŸ†αžŠαŸ…αž‘αŸ…αž›αžΎαž€αžΆαžšαž”αž„αŸ’αž€αžΎαžαžŠαŸ„αž™αž‚αŸ†αž“αž·αžαž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ αžŠαžΌαž…αž‡αžΆ αžαž€αŸ’αž€αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜ αžŸαŸ’αž“αžΆαžŠαŸƒαž’αž€αŸ’αžŸαžšαžŸαžΆαžŸαŸ’αžαŸ’αžšαž“αž·αž„αžŸαž·αž›αŸ’αž”αŸˆ αž“αž·αž˜αž·αžαŸ’αžαžŸαž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ αžšαžΌαž”αž—αžΆαž– αž“αž·αž„αž‚αŸ†αž“αžΌαžšβ€‹αžŠαŸ‚αž›αžαŸ’αžšαžΌαžœαž”αŸ’αžšαžΎαž”αŸ’αžšαžΆαžŸαŸ‹αž“αŸ…αž€αŸ’αž“αž»αž„αž–αžΆαžŽαž·αž‡αŸ’αž‡αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αŸ”

    • αžαžΎαž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαž•αŸ’αžαž›αŸ‹αž•αž›αž”αŸ’αžšαž™αŸ„αž‡αž“αŸαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαžαŸ’αž›αŸ‡?

      αž€αŸ†αžŽαžΎαž“αžŸαŸαžŠαŸ’αž‹αž€αž·αž…αŸ’αž…αžŠαŸ‚αž›αžšαž½αž˜αž…αŸ†αžŽαŸ‚αž€αžŠαŸ„αž™αž…αŸ†αžŽαŸαŸ‡αžŠαžΉαž„ αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ αž‚αžΊαž‡αžΆαž€αžΆαžšαž–αž·αž…αžΆαžšαžŽαžΆαžŠαŸαžŸαŸ†αžαžΆαž“αŸ‹αž€αŸ’αž“αž»αž„αž€αžΆαžšαžŸαž˜αŸ’αžšαŸαž…αž…αž·αžαŸ’αžαž•αŸ’αž“αŸ‚αž€αž–αžΆαžŽαž·αž‡αŸ’αž‡αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αŸ”

    • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαžŸαŸ†αžšαžΆαž”αŸ‹αž–αžΆαžŽαž·αž‡αŸ’αž‡αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜?

      To many, intellectual property (IP) is a rather obscure legal concept that can only be properly understood and applied by those who are specially trained

    • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€?

      αž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€β€‹ αž‚αžΊαž‡αžΆαžŸαž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαžŠαŸ‚αž›αž˜αžΎαž›αžƒαžΎαž‰ αž αžΎαž™αž’αžΆαž…αžŸαŸ†αž‚αžΆαž›αŸ‹αž›αž€αŸ’αžαžŽαŸ‡αžαž»αžŸαž‚αŸ’αž“αžΆαž“αŸƒαž‘αŸ†αž“αž·αž‰ αž¬αžŸαŸαžœαžΆαž“αŸƒαžŸαž αž‚αŸ’αžšαžΆαžŸαž“αžΈαž˜αž½αž™αŸ—αŸ” αž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€αžŠαŸ‚αž›αž”αŸ’αžšαžΎαž”αŸ’αžšαžΆαžŸαŸ‹αžŸαŸ†αžšαžΆαž”αŸ‹αž‘αŸ†αž“αž·αž‰αž αŸ…αžαžΆαž–αžΆαžŽαž·αž‡αŸ’αž‡αžŸαž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ αž αžΎαž™αž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€αžŠαŸ‚αž›αž”αŸ’αžšαžΎαž”αŸ’αžšαžΆαžŸαŸ‹αžŸαŸ†αžšαžΆαž”αŸ‹ αžŸαŸαžœαžΆαž αŸ…αžαžΆ αžŸαŸαžœαžΆαžŸαž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαŸ”

    • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž–αžΆαžŽαž·αž‡αŸ’αž‡αž“αžΆαž˜?

      αž–αžΆαžŽαž·αž‡αŸ’αž‡αž“αžΆαž˜ αž‚αžΊαž‡αžΆαžˆαŸ’αž˜αŸ„αŸ‡ αž¬αžŸαž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαžŸαŸ†αž‚αžΆαž›αŸ‹ αž¬αž‡αžΆαžˆαŸ’αž˜αŸ„αŸ‡ αž“αž·αž„β€‹αžŸαž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαžŸαŸ†αž‚αžΆαž›αŸ‹ αžŸαŸ†αžšαžΆαž”αŸ‹αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‡αžΆαž€αŸ‹ αž“αž·αž„αžŸαŸ†αž‚αžΆαž›αŸ‹αž›αž€αŸ’αžαžŽαŸ‡αžαž»αžŸαž‚αŸ’αž“αžΆαž“αŸƒαžŸαž αž‚αŸ’αžšαžΆαžŸαž“αžΈαž˜αž½αž™αŸ—αŸ”

    • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž”αŸ’αžšαž€αžΆαžŸαž“αžΈαž™αž”αžαŸ’αžšαžαž€αŸ’αž€αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜?

      αž”αŸ’αžšαž€αžΆαžŸαž“αžΈαž™αž”αžαŸ’αžšαžαž€αŸ’αž€αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜β€‹ αž‚αžΊαž‡αžΆαžœαž·αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαž”αž“αž”αžαŸ’αžšαžŠαŸ‚αž›αž”αžΆαž“ αž•αŸ’αžαž›αŸ‹αžŠαžΎαž˜αŸ’αž”αžΈαž€αžΆαžšαž–αžΆαžšαžαž€αŸ’αž€αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αŸ” αžαž€αŸ’αž€αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜ αž‚αžΊαž‡αžΆαž‚αŸ†αž“αž·αžαžšαž”αžŸαŸ‹β€‹αžαž€αŸ’αž€αž€αžšαžŠαŸ‚αž›β€‹αž’αžΆαž…αž™αž€αž‘αŸ…αž’αž“αž»αžœαžαŸ’αž αž”αžΆαž“αž“αŸ…αž€αŸ’αž“αž»αž„αžŠαŸ†αžŽαŸ„αŸ‡αžŸαŸ’αžšαžΆαž™αž”αž‰αŸ’αž αžΆαž‡αžΆαž€αŸ‹αž›αžΆαž€αŸ‹αžŽαžΆαž˜αž½αž™β€‹αž€αŸ’αž“αž»αž„αžœαž·αžŸαŸαž™αž”αž…αŸ’αž…αŸαž€αžœαž·αž‘αŸ’αž™αžΆαŸ” αžαž€αŸ’αž€αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αž’αžΆαž…αž‡αžΆαž€αžΆαžšαžšαž€αžƒαžΎαž‰αž•αž›αž·αžαž•αž› αž¬αžŠαŸ†αžŽαžΎαžšαž€αžΆαžšαž•αž›αž·αžαž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜ αž¬αž’αžΆαž…αž‡αžΆαž€αžΆαžšαžšαž€αžƒαžΎαž‰αž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž˜αž½αž™ αžŠαŸ‚αž›αž‘αžΆαž€αŸ‹αž‘αž„αž‘αŸ…αž“αžΉαž„αž•αž›αž·αžαž•αž› αž¬αžŠαŸ†αžŽαžΎαžšαž€αžΆαžšαž•αž›αž·αžαž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αŸ”

    • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž‚αŸ†αž“αžΌαžšαž§αžŸαŸ’αžŸαžΆαž αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜?

      αž‚αŸ†αžšαžΌαž§αžŸαŸ’αžŸαžΆαž αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜ αž‚αžΊαž‡αžΆαž€αžΆαžšαž•αŸ’αž‚αž»αŸ†αž“αŸƒαž”αž“αŸ’αž‘αžΆαžαŸ‹β€‹ αž¬αž–αžŽαŸŒ αž¬αž‘αž˜αŸ’αžšαž„αŸ‹αž”αžΈαžαŸ’αž“αžΆαž αž¬αžŸαž˜αŸ’αž—αžΆαŸˆαžŽαžΆαž˜αž½αž™ αž‘αŸ„αŸ‡αž”αžΈαž‡αžΆαž˜αžΆαž“αž¬αž–αž»αŸ†αž˜αžΆαž“αž€αžΆαžšαž•αŸ’αž‚αž»αŸ†αžšαž½αž˜αž‡αžΆβ€‹αž˜αž½αž™αž”αž“αŸ’αž‘αžΆαžαŸ‹ αž¬αž–αžŽαŸŒαž€αŸαžŠαŸ„αž™ αž’αŸ„αž™αžαŸ‚αž€αžΆαžšαž•αŸ’αž‚αž»αŸ†αž‘αŸ†αžšαž„αŸ‹ αž¬αžŸαž˜αŸ’αž—αžΆαžšαŸˆαž‘αžΆαŸ†αž„αž“αŸ„αŸ‡αžšαŸ†αž›αŸαž…αž‘αžΎαž„αž‡αžΆαžšαžΌαž”αžšαžΆαž„αž–αž·αžŸαŸαžŸβ€‹αžšαž”αžŸαŸ‹ αž•αž›αž·αžαž•αž›αž§αžŸαŸ’αžŸαžΆαž αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜ αž¬αžŸαž·αž”αŸ’αž”αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αž“αž·αž„αžŠαŸ‚αž›αž’αžΆαž…αž’αŸ’αžœαžΎαž‡αžΆαž‚αŸ†αžšαžΌαž•αž›αž·αžαž•αž› αž§αžŸαŸ’αžŸαžΆαž αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜ αž¬αžŸαž·αž”αŸ’αž”αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜ αž“αž·αž„β€‹αž’αžΆαž…αžŸαž˜αŸ’αž‚αžΆαž›αŸ‹αž”αžΆαž“αžŠαŸ„αž™αž…αž€αŸ’αžαž»αŸ”

    • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαžœαž·αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαž”αž“αž”αžαŸ’αžšαž˜αŸ‰αžΌαžŠαŸ‚αž›αž˜αžΆαž“αž’αžαŸ’αžαž”αŸ’αžšαž™αŸ„αž‡αž“αŸ?

      αž˜αŸ‰αžΌαžŠαŸ‚αž›αž˜αžΆαž“αž’αžαŸ’αžαž”αŸ’αžšαž™αŸ„αž‡αž“αŸ αž‚αžΊαž‡αžΆαžαž€αŸ’αž€αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŽαžΆαž˜αž½αž™β€‹αžŠαŸ‚αž›αžαŸ’αž˜αžΈ αž“αž·αž„αž’αžΆαž…αž™αž€αž‘αŸ…αž’αž“αž»αžœαžαŸ’αžαž”αžΆαž“αž€αŸ’αž“αž»αž„β€‹αžœαž·αžŸαŸαž™αž§αžŸαŸ’αžŸαžΆαž αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜ αž“αž·αž„αžŠαŸ‚αž›αž’αžΆαž…αž‡αžΆαž•αž›αž·αžαž•αž› αž¬αžŠαŸ†αžŽαžΎαžšαž€αžΆαžšαž•αž›αž·αžαž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜β€‹ αž¬αžŠαŸ‚αž›αž’αžΆαž…αž‘αžΆαž€αŸ‹αž‘αž„αž‘αŸ…αž“αžΉαž„αž•αž›αž·αžαž•αž› αž¬αžŠαŸ†αžŽαžΎαžšαž€αžΆαžšαž•αž›αž·αžαž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αŸ”

    • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž€αž·αž…αŸ’αž…αž€αžΆαžšαž–αžΆαžšαž–αžΌαž‡αžαŸ’αž˜αžΈαž“αŸƒαžŠαŸ†αžŽαžΆαŸ†?

      αž–αžΌαž‡αžŸαŸ†αžŠαŸ…αžŠαž›αŸ‹αžšαžΆαž›αŸ‹αž”αŸ’αžšαž—αŸαž‘αž–αžΌαž‡αžŠαŸ†αžŽαžΆαŸ† ឬ αž€αŸ’αžšαž»αž˜αž•αŸ’αžŸαŸαž„αŸ— αž“αŸƒαž”αŸ’αžšαž—αŸαž‘αž–αžΌαž‡αžŠαŸ†αžŽαžΆαŸ†αžŽαžΆαž˜αž½αž™ αžŠαŸ‚αž›αž˜αžΆαž“ αž›αž€αŸ’αžαžŽαŸˆαžŠαžΌαž…αž‚αŸ’αž“αžΆ αž“αž·αž„αž’αŸ’αžœαžΎαž±αŸ’αž™αžƒαžΎαž‰αžαžΆαž”αŸ’αž›αŸ‚αž€αž–αžΈαžšαž»αž€αŸ’αžαž‡αžΆαžαž·αžŠαž‘αŸƒαž‘αŸ€αž αž€αŸ’αž“αž»αž„αž”αŸ’αžšαž—αŸαž‘αž–αžΌαž‡αžŠαŸ†αžŽαžΆαŸ†αžαŸ‚αž˜αž½αž™αž€αŸ’αž“αž»αž„ αž›αž€αŸ’αžαžŽαŸˆαž˜αž½αž™αž¬αž…αŸ’αžšαžΎαž“ αž αžΎαž™αžŠαŸ‚αž›αž›αž€αŸ’αžαžŽαŸˆαž‘αžΆαŸ†αž„αž“αŸαŸ‡αž“αŸ…αžαŸ‚αž’αžΆαž…αžšαž€αŸ’αžŸαžΆαž”αžΆαž“ αžŠαžΎαž˜αŸ’αž”αžΈαž™αž€αž‘αŸ…αž”αŸ’αžšαžΎαž”αŸ’αžšαžΆαžŸαŸ‹ αž’αŸ’αžœαžΎαž‡αžΆαž–αžΌαž‡αžŠαŸ†αžŽαžΆαŸ†αž”αžΆαž“ ឬ αž€αžΆαžšαž”αž„αŸ’αž€αžΆαžαŸ‹αžŠαŸ„αž™αžŸαžšαžΈαžšαžΆαž„αŸ’αž‚αžŠαž‘αŸƒαž‘αŸ€αž αŸ”

    • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž’αŸ’αž“αž€αž“αž·αž–αž“αŸ’αž’ αž“αž·αž„ αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αŸ’αžšαž αžΆαž€αŸ‹αž”αŸ’αžšαž αŸ‚αž›?

      αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž’αŸ’αž“αž€αž“αž·αž–αž“αŸ’αž’αž“αž·αž„αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αŸ’αžšαž αžΆαž€αŸ‹αž”αŸ’αžšαž αŸ‚αž› αž‚αžΊαž‡αžΆαžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αžŠαŸ‚αž›αž•αŸ’αžαž›αŸ‹αž±αŸ’αž™ αžŠαžΎαž˜αŸ’αž”αžΈαž€αžΆαžšαž–αžΆαžšαž’αŸ’αž“αž€αž“αž·αž–αž“αŸ’αž’ αž’αŸ’αž“αž€αžŸαž˜αŸ’αžαŸ‚αž„ αž•αž›αž·αžαž€αžšαž αŸ’αžœαžΌαžŽαžΌαž€αŸ’αžšαžΆαž˜ αž“αž·αž„αž’αž„αŸ’αž‚αž—αžΆαž–αž‘αžΌαžšαž•αŸ’αžŸαžΆαž™ αž“αž·αž„ αžŠαžΎαž˜αŸ’αž”αžΈαž…αžΌαž›αžšαž½αž˜αžœαž·αž—αžΆαž‚αž‘αžΆαž“αž€αŸ’αž“αž»αž„αž€αžΆαžš αž’αž—αž·αžœαžŒαŸ’αžαž“αŸαžŸαŸαžŠαŸ’αž‹αž€αž·αž…αŸ’αž… αž€αŸαžŠαžΌαž…αž‡αžΆαžœαž”αŸ’αž”αž’αž˜αŸŒαž‡αžΆαžαž·αŸ”

    • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€αžŸαž˜αŸ’αž‚αžΆαž›αŸ‹αž—αžΌαž˜αž·αžŸαžΆαžŸαŸ’αžαŸ’αžšαž‘αŸ†αž“αž·αž‰?

      αž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€αžŸαž˜αŸ’αž‚αžΆαž›αŸ‹αž—αžΌαž˜αž·αžŸαžΆαžŸαŸ’αžαŸ’αžšαž‘αŸ†αž“αž·αž‰ αžŸαŸ†αžŠαŸ…αžŠαž›αŸ‹αžˆαŸ’αž˜αŸ„αŸ‡ αžŸαž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαžŸαž˜αŸ’αž‚αžΆαž›αŸ‹ αž“αž·αž„/ឬ αžšαžΌαž”αž—αžΆαž–αž•αŸ’αžŸαŸαž„αŸ—αž‘αŸ€αžαžŠαŸ‚αž›αž˜αžΆαž“ αž›αž€αŸ’αžαžŽαŸˆαž‰αŸ‚αž€αžŠαžΆαž…αŸ‹ αžŠαŸ‚αž›αž‡αžΆαžˆαŸ’αž˜αŸ„αŸ‡αž¬αžαŸ†αžŽαžΆαž„αž±αŸ’αž™αž”αŸ’αžšαž—αž–αžŠαžΎαž˜αž“αŸƒαžαŸ†αž”αž“αŸ‹β€‹αž—αžΌαž˜αž·αžŸαžΆαžŸαŸ’αžšαŸ’αžβ€‹αž˜αž½αž™ αž αžΎαž™αžˆαŸ’αž˜αŸ„αŸ‡ αžŸαž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαžŸαž˜αŸ’αž‚αžΆαž›αŸ‹ αž“αž·αž„/ឬ αžšαžΌαž”αž—αžΆαž–αž“αŸ„αŸ‡ αžŸαž˜αŸ’αžšαžΆαž”αŸ‹αž€αŸ†αžŽαžαŸ‹αž’αžαŸ’αžαžŸαž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαžŽαž‘αŸ†αž“αž·αž‰αž˜αžΆαž“αž”αŸ’αžšαž—αž– αž€αŸ’αž“αž»αž„αž—αžΌαž˜αž·αžŸαžΆαžŸαŸ’αžαŸ’αžšαž“αŸ„αŸ‡ αžŠαŸ‚αž›αž”αžΆαž“αž•αŸ’αžαž›αŸ‹αž‡αžΆαž˜αžΌαž›αžŠαŸ’αž‹αžΆαž“αž‚αŸ’αžšαžΉαŸ‡αžŠαž›αŸ‹αž‚αž»αžŽαž—αžΆαž– αž€αž·αžαŸ’αžαž·αžŸαž–αŸ’αž‘ β€‹αž¬ αž…αžšαž·αžαž›αž€αŸ’αžαžŽαŸˆ αž•αŸ’αžŸαŸαž„αž‘αŸ€αžαž“αŸƒαž‘αŸ†αž“αž·αž‰αžŠαŸ‚αž›αž€αžΎαžαž…αŸαž‰αž–αžΈαžαŸ†αž”αž“αŸ‹αž—αžΌαž˜αž·αžŸαžΆαžŸαŸ’αžšαŸ’αžαž“αŸ„αŸ‡αŸ”

    • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž€αžΆαžšαžŸαž˜αŸ’αž„αžΆαžαŸ‹αž–αžΆαžŽαž·αž‡αŸ’αž‡αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜?

      Broadly speaking, any confidential business information which provides an enterprise a competitive edge may be considered a trade secret.

    • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž–αŸαžαŸŒαž˜αžΆαž“αžŸαž˜αŸ’αž„αžΆαžαŸ‹?

      Undisclosed information refers to information which is secret and has commercial value because it is secret. Undisclosed information, or β€˜trade secrets’, is protected in the TRIPs Agreement under the framework or discipline of unfair competition

    • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž‚αŸ†αž“αžΌαžšαž”αž„αŸ’αž αžΆαž‰αž“αŸƒαžŸαŸ€αž‚αŸ’αžœαžΈαž”αž„αŸ’αžšαž½αž˜?

      A layout-design of an integrated circuit refers essentially to the three-dimensional character of the elements and interconnections of an integrated circuit.

    • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž…αŸ†αžŽαŸαŸ‡αžŠαžΉαž„αž”αŸ’αžšαž–αŸƒαžŽαžΈβ€‹αž“αž·αž„αž’αž“αž’αžΆαž“αžŸαŸαž“αŸαž‘αž·αž…?

      Traditional Knowledge: Traditional knowledge (TK) is knowledge, know-how, skills and practices that are developed, sustained and passed on from generation to generation within a community, often forming part of its cultural or spiritual identity.

    • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž’αŸ†αž–αžΎαž“αŸƒαž€αžΆαžšαž”αŸ’αžšαž€αž½αžαž”αŸ’αžšαž‡αŸ‚αž„αž˜αž·αž“αžŸαŸ’αž˜αŸ„αŸ‡αžαŸ’αžšαž„αŸ‹?

      αž’αŸ†αž–αžΎαž“αŸƒαž€αžΆαžšαž”αŸ’αžšαž€αž½αžαž”αŸ’αžšαž‡αŸ‚αž„αžŽαžΆ αžŠαŸ‚αž›αž•αŸ’αž‘αž»αž™αž–αžΈαž‚αŸ„αž›β€‹αž€αžΆαžšαžŽαŸβ€‹αž“αŸƒαž€αžΆαžšαž’αž“αž»αžœαžαŸ’αžαž“αŸαž‘αŸ€αž„αž‘αžΆαžαŸ‹αž“αŸ…αž€αŸ’αž“αž»αž„αžœαž·αžŸαŸαž™β€‹αž§αžŸαŸ’αžŸαžΆαž αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜ αž–αžΆαžŽαž·αž‡αŸ’αž‡αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜ αžŸαŸαžœαžΆαž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜ αžαŸ’αžšαžΌαžœαž…αžΆαžαŸ‹αž‘αž»αž€αžαžΆ αž‡αžΆαž€αžΆαžšαž”αŸ’αžšαž€αž½αžαž”αŸ’αžšαž‡αŸ‚αž„αž˜αž·αž“αžŸαŸ’αž˜αŸ„αŸ‡αžαŸ’αžšαž„αŸ‹αŸ”

    • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž’αžΆαž‡αŸ’αž‰αžΆαž”αŸαžŽαŸ’αžŽαž”αž‰αŸ’αž‡αžΆαžŸαž˜αŸ’αžšαžΆαž”αŸ‹ αžŸαž»αžαž—αžΆαž–αžŸαžΆαž’αžΆαžšαžŽαŸˆ?

      A compulsory license is an authorization which is granted by the government without the permission of the patent holder

    • αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαž‡αžΆαž§αž”αž€αžšαžŽαŸαž‘αžΈαž•αŸ’αžŸαžΆαžš

      For most small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), marketing products or services is a major challenge

  • αž€αžΆαžšαž‚αŸ’αžšαž”αŸ‹αž‚αŸ’αžšαž„αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ
    • αž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€

    • αž”αŸ’αžšαž€αžΆαžŸαž“αžΈαž™αž”αžαŸ’αžšαžαž€αŸ’αž€αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜

    • αž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€αžŸαž˜αŸ’αž‚αžΆαž›αŸ‹αž—αžΌαž˜αž·αžŸαžΆαžŸαŸ’αžšαŸ’αžαž‘αŸ†αž“αž·αž‰

    • αžœαž·αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαž”αž“αž”αžαŸ’αžšαž˜αŸ‰αžΌαžŠαŸ‚αž›αž˜αžΆαž“αž’αžαŸ’αžαž”αŸ’αžšαž™αŸ„αž‡αž“αŸ

    • αž‚αŸ†αž“αžΌαžšαž§αžŸαŸ’αžŸαžΆαž αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜

    • αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž’αŸ’αž“αž€αž“αž·αž–αž“αŸ’αž’

    • αž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€αžŸαž˜αžΌαž αž—αžΆαž–

    • αž€αž“αŸ’αž›αŸ‚αž„αž•αŸ’αžαž›αŸ‹αž”αŸ’αžšαžΉαž€αŸ’αžŸαžΆαžŸαŸ†αžšαžΆαž”αŸ‹αžŸαž αž‚αŸ’αžšαžΆαžŸαž’αž»αž“αžαžΌαž… αž“αž·αž„αž˜αž’αŸ’αž™αž˜

    • αž˜αž‡αŸ’αžˆαž˜αžŽαŸ’αžŒαž›αž–αŸαžαŸŒαž˜αžΆαž“αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ

      αž˜αž‡αŸ’αžˆαž˜αžŽαŸ’αžŒαž›αž–αŸαžαŸŒαž˜αžΆαž“αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ

  • αžœαž·αžœαžΆαž‘αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ
    • αž’αž„αŸ’αž‚αž—αžΆαž–αž’αž“αž»αžœαžαŸ’αžαžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·

    • αž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€

  • αž…αŸ’αž”αžΆαž”αŸ‹ αž“αž·αž„ αž”αž‘αž”αŸ’αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžαŸ’αžαž·
    • αžŸαž“αŸ’αž’αž·αžŸαž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαž’αž“αŸ’αžαžšαž‡αžΆαžαž·

    • αž…αŸ’αž”αžΆαž”αŸ‹

    • αž–αŸ’αžšαŸ‡αžšαžΆαž‡αž€αŸ’αžšαžΉαžαŸ’αž™

    • αž’αž“αž»αž€αŸ’αžšαžΉαžαŸ’αž™

    • αž”αŸ’αžšαž€αžΆαžŸ

    • αžŸαžΆαžšαžΆαž…αžš

    • αžŸαŸαž…αž€αŸ’αžαžΈαžŸαž˜αŸ’αžšαŸαž…

    • αžŸαŸαž…αž€αŸ’αžαžΈαžŽαŸ‚αž“αžΆαŸ† αž“αž·αž„αžŸαŸαž…αž€αŸ’αžαžΈαž‡αžΌαž“αžŠαŸ†αžŽαžΉαž„

    • αž’αž“αž»αžŸαžΆαžšαžŽαŸˆ

  • αž”αŸ’αžšαž—αž–αž―αž€αžŸαžΆαžš
    • αž”αŸ’αžšαž–αŸαž“αŸ’αž’αž‘αžΈαž€αŸ’αžšαž»αž„αž αŸαž… αž“αž·αž„αž–αž·αž’αžΈαžŸαžΆαžšαž‘αžΈαž€αŸ’αžšαž»αž„αž˜αŸ‰αžΆαžŒαŸ’αžšαžΈαžŠ

    • αž“αžΈαžαž·αžœαž·αž’αžΈαžαŸ’αžšαž½αžαž–αž·αž“αž·αžαŸ’αž™αž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€αž›αž˜αŸ’αž’αž·αž

    • αž–αŸ’αžšαžΉαžαŸ’αžαž·αž”αŸαžαŸ’αžšαž•αŸ’αž›αžΌαžœαž€αžΆαžš

    • αž˜αž‡αŸ’αžαž˜αžŽαŸ’αžŒαž›αž‚αžΆαŸ†αž‘αŸ’αžšαž”αž…αŸ’αž…αŸαž€αžœαž·αž‘αŸ’αž™αžΆ αž“αž·αž„αž“αžœαžΆαž“αž»αžœαžαŸ’αžαž“αŸ

      αž˜αž‡αŸ’αžαž˜αžŽαŸ’αžŒαž›αž‚αžΆαŸ†αž‘αŸ’αžšαž”αž…αŸ’αž…αŸαž€αžœαž·αž‘αŸ’αž™αžΆ αž“αž·αž„αž“αžœαžΆαž“αž»αžœαžαŸ’αžαž“αŸ

    • αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‡αžΈαž—αŸ’αž“αžΆαž€αŸ‹αž„αžΆαžšαžαŸ†αžŽαžΆαž„αžŸαŸ’αžšαž”αž…αŸ’αž”αžΆαž”αŸ‹

    • αžšαž”αžΆαž™αž€αžΆαžšαžŽαŸ αžšαž”αžŸαŸ‹αž“αžΆαž™αž€αžŠαŸ’αž‹αžΆαž“αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ

    • αžšαž”αžΆαž™αž€αžΆαžšαžŽαŸαž”αŸ’αžšαž…αžΆαŸ†αž†αŸ’αž“αžΆαŸ† αžšαž”αžŸαŸ‹αž“αžΆαž™αž€αžŠαŸ’αž‹αžΆαž“αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ

    • αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‡αžΈαž€αžαŸ‹αžαŸ’αžšαžΆαž‘αž‘αž½αž›αžŸαŸ’αž‚αžΆαž›αŸ‹αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž“αžΆαŸ†αž…αžΌαž› αž“αž·αž„αž…αŸ‚αž€αž…αžΆαž™αž•αŸ’αžαžΆαž…αŸ‹αž˜αž»αž

      αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‡αžΈαž€αžαŸ‹αžαŸ’αžšαžΆαž‘αž‘αž½αž›αžŸαŸ’αž‚αžΆαž›αŸ‹αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž“αžΆαŸ†αž…αžΌαž› αž“αž·αž„αž…αŸ‚αž€αž…αžΆαž™αž•αŸ’αžαžΆαž…αŸ‹αž˜αž»αž

    • αž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€αžŸαž˜αŸ’αž‚αžΆαž›αŸ‹αž—αžΌαž˜αž·αžŸαžΆαžŸαŸ’αžαŸ’αžšαž‘αŸ†αž“αž·αž‰

    • αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ αž”αŸ‰αžΌαžšαŸ‰αžΌαžšαŸ‰αžΌ

    • αž‘αŸ†αž–αŸαžšαž—αŸ’αž‡αžΆαž”αŸ‹αžŠαŸ‚αž›αž˜αžΆαž“αž”αŸ’αžšαž™αŸ„αž‡αž“αŸ

    • αž―αž€αžŸαžΆαžšαž–αžΆαž€αŸ‹αž–αŸαž“αŸ’αž’αž“αžΉαž„αžŸαž·αž€αŸ’αžαžΆαžŸαžΆαž›αžΆ

    • αž€αžšαžŽαžΈαžŸαž·αž€αŸ’αžŸαžΆ

      IP αžŠαŸ‚αž›αž™αž»αž‘αŸ’αž’αžŸαžΆαžŸαŸ’αžšαŸ’αžαžšαž”αžŸαŸ‹αžŸαž αž‚αŸ’αžšαž·αž“αž˜αž½αž™αž†αŸ’αž–αŸ„αŸ‡αž‘αŸ…αž€αžΆαž“αŸ‹αž—αžΆαž–αž‡αŸ„αž‚αž‡αŸαž™

    • αž€αžΆαžšαžŸαž·αž€αŸ’αžŸαžΆαž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαž–αžΈαž…αž˜αŸ’αž„αžΆαž™

    • αžŸαŸ’αžαž·αžαž·αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ

  • αž’αžΆαž“αž‘αžΆαŸ†αž„αž’αžŸαŸ‹
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    • αž’αŸ†αž–αžΈαž™αžΎαž„
      • αž“αžΆαž™αž€αžŠαŸ’αž‹αžΆαž“αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ
      • αž“αžΆαž™αž€αžŠαŸ’αž‹αžΆαž“αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž§αžŸαŸ’αžŸαžΆαž αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜
      • αž“αžΆαž™αž€αžŠαŸ’αž‹αžΆαž“αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž’αŸ’αž“αž€αž“αž·αž–αž“αŸ’αž’ αž“αž·αž„β€‹ αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αŸ’αžšαž αžΆαž€αŸ‹αž”αŸ’αžšαž αŸ‚αž›
      • αžŸαž αž”αŸ’αžšαžαž·αž”αžαŸ’αžαž·αž€αžΆαžšαžŽαŸ αž“αž·αž„ αž‡αŸ†αž“αž½αž™αž”αž…αŸ’αž…αŸαž€αž‘αŸαžŸ
    • αž€αžΆαžšαž…αž»αŸ‡αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‡αžΈαž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€αž’αž“αŸ’αžαžšαž‡αžΆαžαž·
    • αžŸαŸαž…αž€αŸ’αžαžΈαž•αŸ’αžαžΎαž˜αž–αžΈαž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ
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      • αžαžΎαž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαž•αŸ’αžαž›αŸ‹αž•αž›αž”αŸ’αžšαž™αŸ„αž‡αž“αŸαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαžαŸ’αž›αŸ‡?
      • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαžŸαŸ†αžšαžΆαž”αŸ‹αž–αžΆαžŽαž·αž‡αŸ’αž‡αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜?
      • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€?
      • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž–αžΆαžŽαž·αž‡αŸ’αž‡αž“αžΆαž˜?
      • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž”αŸ’αžšαž€αžΆαžŸαž“αžΈαž™αž”αžαŸ’αžšαžαž€αŸ’αž€αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜?
      • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž‚αŸ†αž“αžΌαžšαž§αžŸαŸ’αžŸαžΆαž αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜?
      • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαžœαž·αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαž”αž“αž”αžαŸ’αžšαž˜αŸ‰αžΌαžŠαŸ‚αž›αž˜αžΆαž“αž’αžαŸ’αžαž”αŸ’αžšαž™αŸ„αž‡αž“αŸ?
      • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž€αž·αž…αŸ’αž…αž€αžΆαžšαž–αžΆαžšαž–αžΌαž‡αžαŸ’αž˜αžΈαž“αŸƒαžŠαŸ†αžŽαžΆαŸ†?
      • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž’αŸ’αž“αž€αž“αž·αž–αž“αŸ’αž’ αž“αž·αž„ αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αŸ’αžšαž αžΆαž€αŸ‹αž”αŸ’αžšαž αŸ‚αž›?
      • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€αžŸαž˜αŸ’αž‚αžΆαž›αŸ‹αž—αžΌαž˜αž·αžŸαžΆαžŸαŸ’αžαŸ’αžšαž‘αŸ†αž“αž·αž‰?
      • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž€αžΆαžšαžŸαž˜αŸ’αž„αžΆαžαŸ‹αž–αžΆαžŽαž·αž‡αŸ’αž‡αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜?
      • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž–αŸαžαŸŒαž˜αžΆαž“αžŸαž˜αŸ’αž„αžΆαžαŸ‹?
      • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž‚αŸ†αž“αžΌαžšαž”αž„αŸ’αž αžΆαž‰αž“αŸƒαžŸαŸ€αž‚αŸ’αžœαžΈαž”αž„αŸ’αžšαž½αž˜?
      • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž…αŸ†αžŽαŸαŸ‡αžŠαžΉαž„αž”αŸ’αžšαž–αŸƒαžŽαžΈβ€‹αž“αž·αž„αž’αž“αž’αžΆαž“αžŸαŸαž“αŸαž‘αž·αž…?
      • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž’αŸ†αž–αžΎαž“αŸƒαž€αžΆαžšαž”αŸ’αžšαž€αž½αžαž”αŸ’αžšαž‡αŸ‚αž„αž˜αž·αž“αžŸαŸ’αž˜αŸ„αŸ‡αžαŸ’αžšαž„αŸ‹?
      • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž’αžΆαž‡αŸ’αž‰αžΆαž”αŸαžŽαŸ’αžŽαž”αž‰αŸ’αž‡αžΆαžŸαž˜αŸ’αžšαžΆαž”αŸ‹ αžŸαž»αžαž—αžΆαž–αžŸαžΆαž’αžΆαžšαžŽαŸˆ?
      • αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαž‡αžΆαž§αž”αž€αžšαžŽαŸαž‘αžΈαž•αŸ’αžŸαžΆαžš
    • αž€αžΆαžšαž‚αŸ’αžšαž”αŸ‹αž‚αŸ’αžšαž„αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ
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      • αž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€αžŸαž˜αŸ’αž‚αžΆαž›αŸ‹αž—αžΌαž˜αž·αžŸαžΆαžŸαŸ’αžšαŸ’αžαž‘αŸ†αž“αž·αž‰
      • αžœαž·αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαž”αž“αž”αžαŸ’αžšαž˜αŸ‰αžΌαžŠαŸ‚αž›αž˜αžΆαž“αž’αžαŸ’αžαž”αŸ’αžšαž™αŸ„αž‡αž“αŸ
      • αž‚αŸ†αž“αžΌαžšαž§αžŸαŸ’αžŸαžΆαž αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜
      • αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž’αŸ’αž“αž€αž“αž·αž–αž“αŸ’αž’
      • αž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€αžŸαž˜αžΌαž αž—αžΆαž–
      • αž€αž“αŸ’αž›αŸ‚αž„αž•αŸ’αžαž›αŸ‹αž”αŸ’αžšαžΉαž€αŸ’αžŸαžΆαžŸαŸ†αžšαžΆαž”αŸ‹αžŸαž αž‚αŸ’αžšαžΆαžŸαž’αž»αž“αžαžΌαž… αž“αž·αž„αž˜αž’αŸ’αž™αž˜
      • αž˜αž‡αŸ’αžˆαž˜αžŽαŸ’αžŒαž›αž–αŸαžαŸŒαž˜αžΆαž“αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ
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      • αžŸαž“αŸ’αž’αž·αžŸαž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆαž’αž“αŸ’αžαžšαž‡αžΆαžαž·
      • αž…αŸ’αž”αžΆαž”αŸ‹
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      • αžŸαŸαž…αž€αŸ’αžαžΈαžŸαž˜αŸ’αžšαŸαž…
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      • αž’αž“αž»αžŸαžΆαžšαžŽαŸˆ
    • αž”αŸ’αžšαž—αž–αž―αž€αžŸαžΆαžš
      • αž”αŸ’αžšαž–αŸαž“αŸ’αž’αž‘αžΈαž€αŸ’αžšαž»αž„αž αŸαž… αž“αž·αž„αž–αž·αž’αžΈαžŸαžΆαžšαž‘αžΈαž€αŸ’αžšαž»αž„αž˜αŸ‰αžΆαžŒαŸ’αžšαžΈαžŠ
      • αž“αžΈαžαž·αžœαž·αž’αžΈαžαŸ’αžšαž½αžαž–αž·αž“αž·αžαŸ’αž™αž˜αŸ‰αžΆαž€αž›αž˜αŸ’αž’αž·αž
      • αž–αŸ’αžšαžΉαžαŸ’αžαž·αž”αŸαžαŸ’αžšαž•αŸ’αž›αžΌαžœαž€αžΆαžš
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      • αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‡αžΈαž—αŸ’αž“αžΆαž€αŸ‹αž„αžΆαžšαžαŸ†αžŽαžΆαž„αžŸαŸ’αžšαž”αž…αŸ’αž”αžΆαž”αŸ‹
      • αžšαž”αžΆαž™αž€αžΆαžšαžŽαŸ αžšαž”αžŸαŸ‹αž“αžΆαž™αž€αžŠαŸ’αž‹αžΆαž“αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ
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      • αž―αž€αžŸαžΆαžšαž–αžΆαž€αŸ‹αž–αŸαž“αŸ’αž’αž“αžΉαž„αžŸαž·αž€αŸ’αžαžΆαžŸαžΆαž›αžΆ
      • αž€αžšαžŽαžΈαžŸαž·αž€αŸ’αžŸαžΆ
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      • αžŸαŸ’αžαž·αžαž·αž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ
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    • αž•αŸ‚αž“αž‘αžΈαž‚αŸαž αž‘αŸ†αž–αŸαžš
    • αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž€αž˜αŸ’αž˜αžŸαž·αž‘αŸ’αž’αž·αž”αž‰αŸ’αž‰αžΆ?
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    αžαžΎαž’αŸ’αžœαžΈαž‡αžΆαž’αžΆαž‡αŸ’αž‰αžΆαž”αŸαžŽαŸ’αžŽαž”αž‰αŸ’αž‡αžΆαžŸαž˜αŸ’αžšαžΆαž”αŸ‹ αžŸαž»αžαž—αžΆαž–αžŸαžΆαž’αžΆαžšαžŽαŸˆ?

    A compulsory license is an authorization which is granted by the government without the permission of the patent holder. Most countries have provisions for compulsory licenses, either under their patent law or, as in the US, through anti-trust legislation. Under the TRIPs Agreement, countries have the right to issue such licenses. While the Agreement does not limit the grounds - or reasons - for granting compulsory licenses, countries can only use those grounds which are allowed by their national legislation. The development of appropriate national legislation is therefore crucial. TRIPs further states that the conditions under which a compulsory license is granted should be regulated in accordance with the TRIPs Agreement (Article 31).


    Grounds

    Countries have specified many different grounds for issuing compulsory licenses; these can include public health reasons. Other grounds are for instance emergency situations, epidemics, public non-commercial use, to remedy anti-competitive practices or to protect the environment; it is entirely up to the national law to decide which are the grounds, so there is a lot of flexibility. The German law, for example, simply states that compulsory licensing is allowed ‘for reasons of public interest’; a broad description that can be used in many situations. Under US law, compulsory licenses can be issued to remedy anti-competitive practices and for use by the Federal Government; both these grounds are used extensively for issuing such licenses.

    Conditions

    A compulsory license limits the rights of the patent holder, but does not take those rights away. TRIPs therefore specifies the conditions that need to be applied when countries want to grant a compulsory license. An important condition is that each case shall be considered individually. Also, in general, efforts should first be made to obtain a license from the patent holder (a so-called voluntary license), on reasonable terms. What is considered ‘reasonable’ depends on national (case) law.

    The conditions mentioned in TRIPs merit careful reading, and it is important to select carefully the wording when translating TRIPs into national legislation:
     

    • Remuneration for the patent holder shall take into account (not “be equal to” or “be based on”) the economic value of the authorization. So if the contribution of a patent is minor, as for instance in case of a formulation patent, the royalty rate can be lower. Under US national law, compensation is based on what the patent holder has lost. In case of a CL to provide drugs to a population who would otherwise not be able to afford those drugs, it could be argued that the patent holder lost nothing.
       
    • In case of public non-commercial use or government use, TRIPs does not require countries to provide for the right of injunction, only for payment of compensation. Again, this is important for the actual implementation of a CL for public use. This is practiced in the US; the US Government cannot be sued for infringement of a patent, it can only be sued about the amount of compensation paid. Under US law, the same applies to contractors acting on behalf of the US Government.
       
    • A decision to issue a CL must be subject to review, but this does not have to be a judicial review; TRIPs only requires that the review is independent, so countries may opt for an administrative review, which is less burdensome and much faster. It seems advisable for developing countries to provide for an administrative review only, to prevent patent holders from blocking the use of a CL by initiating time-consuming court procedures.
       
    • A compulsory license shall be predominantly for the supply of the domestic market. A CL therefore would hardly interfere with practices of differential or tiered pricing. However, “predominantly” is not exclusively, so some export is still possible. Public interest groups advocate that export to a market where a CL has been issued, should be allowed; otherwise, countries with small markets, where local production is not viable, would not be able to use CL provisions effectively.
       
    • If a CL is issued to remedy anticompetitive practices, many of the conditions do not apply, such as the requirement to first try to obtain a voluntary license. Also, the restriction on export no longer applies; this is important for the US, which frequently issues compulsory licenses to remedy such practices.


    Main function

    At times, the fact that few such licenses have been granted is used as an argument against the compulsory license system. While it is true that in some countries, e.g. UK, few compulsory licenses have been issued, other countries, such as the US, have granted a large number of compulsory licenses. But regardless of whether or not they are used frequently, provisions for compulsory licensing are needed, because they will encourage the patent owner to behave correctly. They give a sign to the patent owner that in the case of abuse of rights and/or non-availability of the product, a third party could be allowed to use the invention; this prevents malpractice and misuse of the monopoly rights. In fact, one of the most important aspects of a compulsory license system is its impact on the actual behavior of the patent owner; therefore it is a necessary element in any IPR law. However, to ensure the system can be used effectively, it is important to carefully state the grounds and conditions for its use in the national legislation; these should include its use for reasons related to public health.
     

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      • Tel: 012 26 15 36 (Hotline): 012 807 346
      • E-mail: [email protected]
      • Website: www.cambodiaip.gov.kh
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